Fortification

A is a   or  designed for the defense of territories in fare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from fortis ("strong") and facere ("to make").

From very early history to modern times, defensive walls have often been necessary for cities to survive in an ever-changing world of invasion and conquest. Some settlements in the were the first small cities to be fortified. In, large stone walls had been built in , such as the ancient site of (famous for the huge stone blocks of its '' walls). A Greek  was a fortified collection of buildings used as a military, and is the equivalent of the  or  fortress. These constructions mainly served the purpose of a watch tower, to guard certain roads, passes, and borders. Though smaller than a real fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch and maintain the border.

The art of setting out a military camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called "castrametation" since the time of the s. Fortification is usually divided into two branches: permanent fortification and field fortification. There is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. s are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the generic fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a or  and command a specific defensive territory.

and s were the main antecedents of castles in, which emerged in the 9th century in the. The saw the creation of some towns built around castles.

Nomenclature


The art of setting out a military camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called metation since the time of the s. The art/science of laying to a fortification and of destroying it is commonly called ' or siege warfare and is formally known as '. In some texts this latter term also applies to the art of building a fortification.

Fortification is usually divided into two branches: permanent fortification and field fortification. Permanent fortifications are erected at leisure, with all the resources that a state can supply of constructive and skill, and are built of enduring materials. Field fortifications—for example breastworks—and often known as fieldworks or earthworks, are extemporized by troops in the field, perhaps assisted by such local labour and tools as may be procurable and with materials that do not require much preparation, such as earth, brushwood and light timber, or sandbags (see ).

There is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. This is employed when in the course of a campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality with the best imitation of permanent defences that can be made in a short time, ample resources and skilled civilian labour being available. An example of this is the construction of and in other Roman territories where camps were set up with the intention of staying for some time, but not permanently.

s are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the generic fort or fortress in that it describes a residence of a monarch or noble and commands a specific defensive territory. An example of this is the massive medieval castle of.

Neolithic Europe
From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for many cities. In, near the town of a walled fortified settlement today called  starting from 4700 BC had a diameter of about 300 feet (100 meters), was home to 350 people living in two-storey houses, and was encircled by a fortified wall. The huge walls around the settlement, which were built very tall and with stone blocks which are 6 feet (2 meters) high and 4.5 feet (1.5 meters) thick, make it one of the earliest walled settlements in Europe but it is younger than the walled town of  in  from 6800 BC. in ancient  is one of the world's oldest known. The Ancient Egyptians also built fortresses on the frontiers of the to protect against invaders from neighbouring territories, as well as circle-shaped mud brick walls around their cities. Many of the fortifications of the ancient world were built with mud brick, often leaving them no more than mounds of dirt for today's archaeologists.

A massive prehistoric stone wall surrounded the ancient temple of 3200 BC in. Named the "Great Wall of Brodgar" it was four metres thick and four metres tall. The wall had some symbolic or ritualistic function. The deployed large labour forces to build new, temples and defensive walls.

Neolithic Indus Valley
Some settlements in the were also fortified. By about 3500 BC, hundreds of small farming villages dotted the floodplain. Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. The stone and mud brick houses of were clustered behind massive stone flood dykes and defensive walls, for neighbouring communities bickered constantly about the control of prime agricultural land. (c. 2500 BC) in present-day south-east has defensive walls and square bastions of sun dried bricks. The entire city of in  was encompassed by fortified walls surrounded by a ditch. Archaeology has revealed various Bronze Age bastions and foundations constructed of stone together with either baked or unfired brick.

Bronze Age Europe
In, some settlements also began to be fortified. The most notable surviving example is, where a bastion built in around 1500 BC was found. was one of the most famous cities of the ancient world, especially as a result of the building program of, who expanded the walls and built the. Exceptions were few—notably, ancient and ancient  did not have walls for a long time, choosing to rely on their militaries for defence instead. Initially, these fortifications were simple constructions of wood and earth, which were later replaced by mixed constructions of stones piled on top of each other without. In, large stone walls had been built in , such as the ancient site of (famous for the huge stone blocks of its '' walls). In, the city of  built two parallel stone walls, called the , that reached their fortified seaport at  a few miles away.

In, the built large fortified settlements known as , whose walls seem partially influenced by those built in the. The fortifications were continuously being expanded and improved. Around 600 BC, in, Germany, forts were constructed with a limestone foundation supported by a wall approximately 4 metres tall, probably topped by a roofed walkway, thus reaching a total height of 6 metres. The wall was clad with lime plaster, regularly renewed. Towers protruded outwards from it. The (German: Oppidum von Manching) was a large Celtic proto-urban or city-like settlement at modern-day Manching (near Ingolstadt), Bavaria (Germany). The settlement was founded in the 3rd century BC and existed until c. 50–30 BC. It reached its largest extent during the late La Tène period (late 2nd century BC), when it had a size of 380 hectares. At that time, 5,000 to 10,000 people lived within its 7.2 km long walls. The oppidum of is another example of a Gaulish fortified settlement.

Ancient Rome
The are a line of s built between 271 AD and 275 AD in, , during the reign of the s  and. The walls enclosed all the plus the  and, on the right bank of the, the  district. The river banks within the city limits appear to have been left unfortified, although they were fortified along the Campus Martius. The full circuit ran for 19 km surrounding an area of 13.7 km². The walls were constructed in brick-faced concrete, 3.5 m thick and 8 m high, with a square tower every 100 Roman feet (29.6 m). In the 5th century, remodelling doubled the height of the walls to 16 m. By 500 AD, the circuit possessed 383 towers, 7,020 s, 18 main gates, 5, 116 s, and 2,066 large external windows.

The fortified their cities with massive, mortar-bound stone walls. The most famous of these are the largely extant of  and the  of, together with partial remains elsewhere. These are mostly city gates, like the in  or  in. was built by the across the width of what is now  following a visit by   (AD 76–138) in AD 122.

India


A number of forts dating from the to the  may be found in India. "Fort" is the word used in India for all old fortifications. Numerous sites exhibit evidences of fortifications. While has stone-built fortification walls,  is fortified using baked bricks; sites such as  exhibit  fortifications with bastions and  has a quadrangular fortified layout. Evidence also suggested of fortifications in. Even a small town – for instance, Kotada Bhadli, exhibiting sophisticated fortification-like bastions – shows that nearly all major and minor towns of the Indus Valley Civilization were fortified. Forts also appeared in urban cities of the Gangetic valley during the second urbanisation period between 600 and 200 BC, and as many as 15 fortification sites have been identified by archaeologists throughout the Gangetic valley, such as, , , , , , and. The earliest vedic brick fortification occurs in one of the stupa mounds of Lauria Nandangarh, which is 1.6 km in perimeter and oval in plan and encloses a habitation area. India currently has over 180 forts, with the state of alone having over 70 forts, which are also known as durg, many of them built by, founder of the. A large majority of forts in India are in North India. The most notable forts are the at, the  at , the  and  in , the ,  and  also in Rajasthan and  in.

China


Large tempered earth (i.e. rammed earth) walls were built in since the  (c. 1600–1050 BC); the capital at ancient Ao had enormous walls built in this fashion (see siege for more info). Although stone walls were built in China during the (481–221 BC), mass conversion to stone architecture did not begin in earnest until the  (618–907 AD). The had been built since the  (221–207 BC), although its present form was mostly an engineering feat and remodelling of the  (1368–1644 AD).

In addition to the Great Wall, a number of Chinese cities also employed the use of defensive walls to defend their cities. Notable s include the city walls of, , the , , and the. The famous walls of the in  were established in the early 15th century by the. The Forbidden City made up the inner portion of the.

Philippines
The Ivatan people of the northern islands of Batanes built their so-called  on hills and elevated areas to protect themselves during times of war. These fortifications were likened to European castles because of their purpose. Usually, the only entrance to the castles would be via a rope ladder that would only be lowered for the villagers and could be kept away when invaders arrived.

The built forts made of stone walls that averaged several meters in width and about two to three times the width in height around 2000 BC.

The Muslim Filipinos of the south built strong fortresses called kota or moong to protect their communities. Usually, many of the occupants of these kotas are entire families rather than just warriors. Lords often had their own kotas to assert their right to rule, it served not only as a military installation but as a palace for the local Lord. It is said that at the height of the power, they blanketed the areas around Western  with Kotas and other fortifications to block the Spanish advance into the region. These kotas were usually made of stone and bamboo or other light materials and surrounded by trench networks. As a result, some of these kotas were burned easily of destroyed. With further Spanish campaigns in the region, the Sultanate was subdued and majority of Kotas dismantled or destroyed. Kotas were not only used by the Muslims as defense against Spaniards and other foreigners, renegades and rebels also built fortifications in defiance of other chiefs in the area. During the American occupation, rebels built strongholds and the Datus, Rajahs or Sultans often built and reinforced their kotas in a desperate bid to maintain rule over their subjects and their land. Many of these forts were also destroyed by American expeditions, as a result, very very few kotas still stand to this day.

Notable Kotas:
 * : an outpost of the in Luzon, later became the City of.
 * : Literally translates to "stone fort" the first known stone fortification in the country, its ruins exist as the "Kutawato Cave Complex"
 * : The capital and seat of the . When it was occupied by the Spaniards in the 1870s they converted the kota into the world's smallest walled city.

During Muhammad's lifetime


During Muhammad's era in Arabia, many tribes made use of fortifications. In the, the largely outnumbered defenders of Medina, mainly s led by , dug a trench, which together with Medina's natural fortifications, rendered the confederate  (consisting of horses and ) useless, locking the two sides in a stalemate. Hoping to make several attacks at once, the confederates persuaded the Medina-allied to attack the city from the south. However, derailed the negotiations, and broke up the confederacy against him. The well-organized defenders, the sinking of confederate morale, and poor weather conditions caused the siege to end in a fiasco.

During the in January 630, Muhammad ordered his followers to attack enemies who fled from the  and sought refuge in the fortress of Taif.

Africa
The are described as the world's second longest man-made structure, as well as the most extensive earthwork in the world, by the Guinness Book of Records, 1974. The walls may have been constructed between the thirteenth and mid-fifteenth century CE or, during the first millennium CE. Strong citadels were also built other in areas of Africa. for example had several sites surrounded by the full range of earthworks and ramparts seen elsewhere, and sited on ground. This improved defensive potential- such as hills and ridges. Yoruba fortifications were often protected with a double wall of trenches and ramparts, and in the Congo forests concealed and paths, along with the main works, often bristled with rows of sharpened stakes. Inner defenses were laid out to blunt an enemy penetration with a maze of defensive walls allowing for entrapment and on opposing forces.

A military tactic of the was to create powerful log s at key points. This was employed in later wars against the to block British advances. Some of these fortifications were over a hundred yard long, with heavy parallel tree trunks. They were impervious to destruction by artillery fire. Behind these stockades numerous Ashanti soldiers were mobilized to check enemy movement. While formidable in construction, many of these strongpoints failed because Ashanti guns, gunpowder and bullets were poor, and provided little sustained killing power in defense. Time and time again British troops overcame or bypassed the stockades by mounting old-fashioned bayonet charges, after laying down some covering fire.

Defensive works were of importance in the tropical African Kingdoms. In the field fortifications were characterized by trenches and low earthen embankments. Such strongpoints ironically, sometimes held up much better against European cannon than taller, more imposing structures.



Medieval Europe
and s were the main antecedents of s in, which emerged in the 9th century in the. The saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only rarely protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and. From the 12th century hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe, which very often obtained the right of fortification soon afterwards.

{{w|File:John Smith 1624 map of Bermuda with Forts 01.jpg|thumb|{{w|John Smith (explorer)|John Smith's}} 1624 map of the {{w|Castle Islands Fortifications, Bermuda|fortifications of the Castle Harbour Islands}} and {{w|St. George's Harbour, Bermuda|St. George's Harbour}} in {{w|Bermuda}}. Construction beginning in 1612, these were the first stone fortifications, with the first coastal artillery batteries, built by {{w|England}} in the {{w|New World}}. The founding of urban centres was an important means of territorial expansion and many cities, especially in {{w|eastern Europe}}, were founded precisely for this purpose during the period of {{w|Ostsiedlung|Eastern Colonisation}}. These cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces. The fortifications of these settlements were continuously improved to reflect the current level of military development. During the {{w|Renaissance era}}, the {{w|Republic of Venice|Venetian Republic}} raised great walls around cities, and the finest examples, among others, are in {{w|Nicosia}} (Cyprus), {{w|Rocca di Manerba del Garda (Lombardy)}} and {{w|Palmanova}} (Italy), or {{w|Dubrovnik}} (Croatia), which proved to be futile against attacks but still stand to this day. Unlike Venetians the {{w|Ottoman architecture|Ottomans}} used to built smaller fortifications but in greater numbers, and only rarely fortified entire settlements such as {{w|Počitelj}}, {{w|Walled city of Vratnik|Vratnik}} and {{w|Walled city of Jajce|Jajce}} in {{w|Ottoman Bosnia|Bosnia}}.

{{footer start}} = {{footer resources}} = {{footer |       navboxes = {{Fortifications navbox}} {{Stonemasonry}} |       see also = |        sources = | further reading = |          notes = |     references = {{Reflist}} | external links = {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons}} }}
 * Citadel
 * Defensive wall
 * List of fortifications
 * List of forts
 * Murray, Nicholas. “The Development of Fortifications,” The Encyclopedia of War, Gordon Martel (ed.). WileyBlackwell, 2011.
 * Murray, Nicholas. The Rocky Road to the Great War: The Evolution of Trench Warfare to 1914. Potomac Books Inc. (an imprint of the University of Nebraska Press), 2013.
 * Osadolor, Osarhieme Benson, "The Military System of Benin Kingdom 1440–1897]," (UD), Hamburg University: 2001 copy
 * July, Robert Pre-Colonial Africa, Charles Scribner, 1975
 * Thornton, John Kelly Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800, Routledge: 1999 {{ISBN|1857283937}}
 * {{EB1911 |wstitle=Fortification and Siegecraft |volume=10 |pages=679–725}}
 * Fortress Study Group
 * {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205190113/http://www.militaryarchitecture.com |date=5 December 2018 |title=Military Architecture}}
 * ICOFORT
 * {{wikipedia}}