Charcoal



is a hard, black substance similar to that can be used as fuel or, in the form of sticks, as something to draw with. It is a lightweight residue produced by strongly heating  (or other  and  materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. The production of charcoal is controlled in most places by the who are are smen who deal in the sale of not just charcoal, but also, and, in towns only,. The major customers for the charcoalers are s, s, and s.

History
The in locations where there is an abundance of wood dates back to prehistoric times. It generally begins with piling of wood on their ends to form a conical pile. Openings are left at the bottom to admit, with a central shaft serving as a. The whole pile is covered with turf or moistened. The firing is begun at the bottom of the flue, and gradually spreads outward and upward. The success of the operation depends upon the rate of the. Under average conditions wood yields about 60% charcoal by, or 25% by ; small-scale production methods often yield only about 50% by volume, while large-scale methods enabled higher yields of about 90%. The operation is so delicate that it is generally left to colliers (professional charcoal burners). They often live alone in small huts to tend their wood piles. For example, in the of,  live in conical  called .

The massive production of charcoal (at its height employing hundreds of thousands, mainly in Alpine and neighbouring forests) was a major cause of, especially in. In, many woods were managed as , which were cut and regrown cyclically, so that a steady supply of charcoal was available. Complaints (as early as the ) about shortages may relate to the results of temporary  or the impossibility of increasing production to match growing demand. The increasing scarcity of easily harvested wood was a major factor behind the switch to equivalents, mainly  and  for industrial use.

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